Stanfield C.L Principles of Human Physiology

6th edition. — Pearson, 2016. — 817 p.For courses in Human Physiology
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Copyright Page
About the AuthorList of Boxes
Introduction to Physiology
Organization of the Body
Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems
The Overall Body Plan: A Simplified View
Homeostasis: A Central Organizing Principle of Physiology
Negative Feedback Control in Homeostasis
The Diabetes Epidemic
Prevalence of Diabetes
Obesity and Diabetes
Classification of Diabetes
Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus
Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Cell Structure and Function
Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
Lipids
Amino Acids and Proteins
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
Cell Structure
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Structure of the Nucleus
Contents of the Cytosol
Structure of Membranous Organelles
Structure of Nonmembranous Organelles
Cell-to-Cell Adhesions
Tight Junctions
Desmosomes
Gap Junctions
General Cell Functions
Metabolism
Cellular Transport
Intercellular Communication
Protein Synthesis
The Role of the Genetic Code
Transcription
Destination of Proteins
Post-translational Processing and Packaging of Proteins
Regulation of Protein Synthesis
Protein Degradation
Cell Division
Replication of DNA
The Cell Cycle
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Cell Metabolism
Types of Metabolic Reactions
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Metabolic Reactions and Energy
Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics
Energy Changes in Reactions
Activation Energy
Reaction Rates
Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical Reactions
The Role of Enzymes in Chemical Reactions
ATP: The Medium of Energy Exchange
Glucose Oxidation: The Central Reaction of Energy Metabolism
Coupling Glucose Oxidation to ATP Synthesis
Stages of Glucose Oxidation: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Glycolysis
The Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The Electron Transport Chain
Summary of Glucose Oxidation
Glucose Catabolism in the Absence of Oxygen
Energy Storage and Use: Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins
Glycogen Metabolism
Gluconeogenesis: Formation of New Glucose
Fat Metabolism
Protein Metabolism
Chapter Summary
ExercisesCell Membrane Transport
Factors Affecting the Direction of Transport
Passive Transport Versus Active Transport
Driving Forces Acting on Molecules
Rate of Transport
Passive Transport
Simple Diffusion: Passive Transport Through the Lipid Bilayer
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Utilizing Membrane Proteins
Diffusion Through Channels
Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
Secondary Active Transport
Factors Affecting Rates of Active Transport
Coexistence of Active and Passive Transport Mechanisms in Cells
Osmosis: Passive Transport of Water Across Membranes
Osmolarity
Osmotic Pressure
Tonicity
Transport of Material Within Membrane-Bound Compartments
Transport of Molecules into Cells by Endocytosis
Transport of Molecules Out of Cells by Exocytosis
Epithelial Transport: Movement of Molecules Across Two Membranes
Epithelial Solute Transport
Epithelial Structure
Epithelial Water Transport
Transcytosis
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Chemical Messengers
Mechanisms of Intercellular Communication
Direct Communication Through Gap Junctions
Indirect Communication Through Chemical Messengers
Chemical Messengers
Functional Classification of Chemical Messengers
Chemical Classification of Messengers
Synthesis and Release of Chemical Messengers
Transport of Messengers
Signal Transduction Mechanisms
Properties of Receptors
Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Intracellular Receptors
Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Membrane-Bound Receptors
Long-Distance Communication via the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Endocrine System:Endocrine Glandsand Hormone Actions
Primary Endocrine Organs
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Pineal Gland
Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands
Thymus
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Gonads
Secondary Endocrine Organs
Hormone Actions at the Target Cell
Control of Hormone Levels in Blood
Abnormal Secretion of Hormones
Hormone Interactions
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Nerve Cells and Electrical Signaling
Overview of the Nervous System
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
Glial Cells
Establishment of the Resting Membrane Potential
Determining the Equilibrium Potentials for Potassium and Sodium Ions
Resting Membrane Potential of Neurons
Neurons at Rest
Electrical Signaling Through Changes in Membrane Potential
Describing Changes in Membrane Potential
Graded Potentials
Action Potentials
Propagation of Action Potentials
Maintaining Neural Stability
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Synaptic Transmission and Neural Integration
Electrical Synapses
Chemical Synapses
Functional Anatomy of Chemical Synapses
Signal Transduction Mechanisms at Chemical Synapses
Excitatory Synapses
Inhibitory Synapses
Neural Integration
Summation
Frequency Coding
Presynaptic Modulation
Presynaptic Facilitation
Presynaptic Inhibition
Neurotransmitters: Structure, Synthesis, and Degradation
Acetylcholine
Biogenic Amines
Purines
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
Neuropeptides
Unique Neurotransmitters
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Nervous System:Central Nervous System
General Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
Glial Cells
Physical Support of the Central Nervous System
Blood Supply to the Central Nervous System
The Blood-Brain Barrier
Gray Matter and White Matter
The Spinal Cord
Spinal Nerves
Spinal Cord Gray and White Matter
The Brain
Cerebral Cortex
Subcortical Nuclei
Diencephalon
Limbic System
Integrated CNS Function: Involuntary Movement Through Reflexes
Stretch Reflex
Withdrawal and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes
Integrated CNS Function: Voluntary Motor Control
Neural Components for Smooth Voluntary Movements
Lateral Pathways Control Voluntary Movement
Ventromedial Pathways Control Voluntary and Involuntary Movements
The Control of Posture by the Brainstem
The Role of the Cerebellum in Motor Coordination
The Basal Nuclei in Motor Control
Integrated CNS Function: Language
Integrated CNS Function: Sleep
Functions of Sleep
Sleep-Wake Cycles
Electrical Activity During Wakefulness and Sleep
Integrated CNS Function: Emotions and Motivation
Integrated CNS Function: Learning and Memory
Learning
Memory
Plasticity in the Nervous System
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Nervous System: Sensory Systems
General Principles of Sensory Physiology
Receptor Physiology
Sensory Pathways
Sensory Coding
The Somatosensory System
Somatosensory Receptors
The Somatosensory Cortex
Somatosensory Pathways
Pain Perception
Vision
Anatomy of the Eye
The Nature and Behavior of Light Waves
Accommodation
Clinical Defects in Vision
Regulating the Amount of Light Entering the Eye
The Retina
Phototransduction
Rods versus Cones
Color Vision
Light Input to Circadian Rhythms
Bleaching of Photoreceptors in Light
Neural Processing in the Retina
Neural Pathways for Vision
Parallel Processing in the Visual System
Depth Perception
The Ear and Hearing
Anatomy of the Ear
The Nature of Sound Waves
Sound Amplification in the Middle Ear
Signal Transduction for Sound
Neural Pathways for Sound
The Ear and Equilibrium
Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus
The Semicircular Canals and the Transduction of Rotation
The Utricle and Saccule and the Transduction of Linear Acceleration
Neural Pathways for Equilibrium
Taste
Anatomy of Taste Buds
Signal Transduction in Taste
Neural Pathway for Taste
Olfaction
Anatomy of the Olfactory System
Olfactory Signal Transduction
Neural Pathway for Olfaction
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Nervous System:Autonomic and MotorSystems
The Autonomic Nervous System
Dual Innervation in the Autonomic Nervous System
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Autonomic Neuroeffector Junctions
Regulation of Autonomic Function
The Somatic Nervous System
Anatomy of the Somatic Nervous System
The Neuromuscular Junction
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Muscle Physiology
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Structure at the Cellular Level
Structure at the Molecular Level
The Mechanism of Force Generation in Muscle
The Sliding-Filament Model
The Crossbridge Cycle: How Muscles Generate Force
Excitation-Contraction Coupling: How Muscle Contractions Are Turned On and Off
The Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
The Twitch
Factors Affecting the Force Generated by Individual Muscle Fibers
Regulation of the Force Generated by Whole Muscles
Velocity of Shortening
Skeletal Muscle Metabolism
Muscle Cell Metabolism: How Muscle Cells Generate ATP
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity
Muscle Activity Across Joints
Muscle Receptors for Coordinated Activity
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Cardiovascular System: Cardiac Function
An Overview of the Cardiovascular System
The Heart
Blood Vessels
Blood
The Path of Blood Flow Through the Heart and Vasculature
Series Flow Through the Cardiovascular System
Parallel Flow Within the Systemic or Pulmonary Circuit
Anatomy of the Heart
Myocardium and the Heart Wall
Valves and Unidirectional Blood Flow
Electrical Activity of the Heart
The Conduction System of the Heart
Spread of Excitation Through the Heart Muscle
The Ionic Basis of Electrical Activity in the Heart
Recording the Electrical Activity of the Heart with an Electrocardiogram
The Cardiac Cycle
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
Atrial and Ventricular Pressure
Aortic Pressure
Ventricular Volume
Pressure-Volume Curve
Heart Sounds
Cardiac Output and Its Control
Autonomic Input to the Heart
Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Heart Rate
Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Stroke Volume
Integration of Factors Affecting Cardiac Output
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels, Blood Flow,and Blood Pressure
Physical Laws Governing Blood Flow and Blood Pressure
Pressure Gradients in the Cardiovascular System
Resistance in the Cardiovascular System
Relating Pressure Gradients and Resistance in the Systemic Circulation
Overview of the Vasculature
Arteries
Arteries: A Pressure Reservoir
Arterial Blood Pressure
Arterioles
Arterioles and Resistance to Blood Flow
Intrinsic Control of Blood Flow Distribution to Organs
Extrinsic Control of Arteriole Radius and Mean Arterial Pressure
Capillaries and Venules
Capillary Anatomy
Local Control of Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds
Movement of Material Across Capillary Walls
Venules
Veins
Veins: A Volume Reservoir
Factors That Influence Venous Pressure and Venous Return
The Lymphatic System
Mean Arterial Pressure and Its Regulation
Determinants of Mean Arterial Pressure: Heart Rate, Stroke Volume, and Total Peripheral Resistance
Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure
Control of Blood Pressure by LowPressure Baroreceptors (Volume Receptors)
Other Cardiovascular Regulatory Processes
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia
Chemoreceptor Reflexes
Thermoregulatory Responses
Chapter Summary
ExercisesThe Cardiovascular System: Blood
Overview of the Composition of Blood: The Hematocrit
Erythrocytes
Plasma
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
Life Cycle of Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Basophils
Monocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Lymphocytes
Platelets and Hemostasis
Vascular Spasm
Platelet Plug
Formation of a Blood Clot
Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Respiratory System: Pulmonary Ventilation
Overview of Respiratory Function
Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Upper Airways
The Respiratory Tract
Structures of the Thoracic Cavity
Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation
Pulmonary Pressures
Mechanics of Breathing
Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
Lung Compliance
Airway Resistance
Clinical Significance of Respiratory Volumes and Air Flows
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Pulmonary Function Tests
Alveolar Ventilation
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Respiratory System:Gas Exchange and Regulation of Breathing
Overview of the Pulmonary Circulation
Diffusion of Gases
Partial Pressure of Gases
Solubility of Gases in Liquids
Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Gas Exchange in the Lungs
Gas Exchange in Respiring Tissue
Determinants of Alveolar Po and Pco
Transport of Gases in the Blood
Oxygen Transport in the Blood
Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood
Central Regulation of Ventilation
Neural Control of Breathing by Motor Neurons
Generation of the Breathing Rhythm in the Brainstem
Peripheral Input to Respiratory Centers
Control of Ventilation by Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptor Reflexes
Local Regulation of Ventilation and Perfusion
Ventilation-Perfusion Ratios
Local Control of Ventilation and Perfusion
The Respiratory System in Acid-Base Homeostasis
Acid-Base Disturbances in Blood
The Role of the Respiratory System in Acid-Base Balance
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Urinary System: Renal Function
Functions of the Urinary System
Anatomy of the Urinary System
Structures of the Urinary System
Macroscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
Blood Supply to the Kidney
Basic Renal Exchange Processes
Glomerular Filtration
Reabsorption
Transport Maximum
Secretion
Regional Specialization of the Renal Tubules
Nonregulated Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
Regulated Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
Water Conservation in the Loop of Henle
Excretion
Clearance
Excretion Rate
Micturition
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Urinary System:Fluid and ElectrolyteBalance
The Concept of Balance
Factors Affecting the Plasma Composition
Solute and Water Balance
Water Balance
Osmolarity and the Movement of Water
Water Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
Establishment of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient
Role of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient in Water Reabsorption in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
Sodium Balance
Mechanisms of Sodium Reabsorption in the Renal Tubule
The Effects of Aldosterone
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Potassium Balance
Renal Handling of Potassium Ions
Regulation of Potassium Secretion by Aldosterone
Calcium Balance
Renal Handling of Calcium Ions
Hormonal Control of Plasma Calcium Concentrations
Interactions Between Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation
Acid-Base Balance
Sources of Acid-Base Disturbances
Defense Mechanisms Against Acid-Base Disturbances
Compensation for Acid-Base Disturbances
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Gastrointestinal System
Overview of Gastrointestinal System Processes
Functional Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal System
The Gastrointestinal Tract
The Accessory Glands
Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients and Water
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Absorption of Vitamins
Absorption of Minerals
Absorption of Water
General Principles of Gastrointestinal Regulation
Neural and Endocrine Pathways of Gastrointestinal Control
Regulation of Food Intake
Gastrointestinal Secretion and Its Regulation
Saliva Secretion
Acid and Pepsinogen Secretion in the Stomach
Secretion of Pancreatic Juice and Bile
Rates of Fluid Movement in the Digestive System
Gastrointestinal Motility and Its Regulation
Electrical Activity in Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle
Peristalsis and Segmentation
Chewing and Swallowing
Gastric Motility
Motility of the Small Intestine
Motility of the Colon
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Endocrine System: Regulation of Energy Metabolism and Growth
An Overview of WholeBody Metabolism
Anabolism
Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
Energy Intake, Utilization, and Storage
Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Carbohydrates
Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Proteins
Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Fats
Energy Balance
Energy Input
Energy Output
Metabolic Rate
Negative and Positive Energy Balance
Energy Metabolism During the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States
Metabolism During the Absorptive State
Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State
Regulation of Absorptive and Postabsorptive Metabolism
The Role of Insulin
The Role of Glucagon
Negative Feedback Control of Blood Glucose Levels by Insulin and Glucagon
Effects of Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nervous Activity on Metabolism
Thermoregulation
Temperature Balance
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Between the Body and the External Environment
Regulation of Body Temperature
Alterations in the Set Point for Thermoregulation: Fever
Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Body Growth
Effects of Growth Hormone
Other Hormones That Affect Growth
Thyroid Hormones
Synthesis and Secretion of Thyroid Hormones
Actions of Thyroid Hormones
Glucocorticoids
Factors Affecting Secretion of Glucocorticoids
Actions of Glucocorticoids
The Role of Cortisol in the Stress Response
Effects of Abnormal Glucocorticoid Secretion
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Reproductive System
An Overview of Reproductive Physiology
The Role of Gametes in Sexual Reproduction
Gene Sorting and Packaging in Gametogenesis: Meiosis
Components of the Reproductive System
Events Following Fertilization
Patterns of Reproductive Activity over the Human Life Span
The Male Reproductive System
Functional Anatomy of the Male Reproductive Organs
Hormonal Regulation of Reproductive Function in Males
Sperm and Their Development
The Sexual Response in Males
The Female Reproductive System
Functional Anatomy of the Female Reproductive Organs
Ova and Their Development
The Sexual Response in Females
The Menstrual Cycle
Long-Term Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproductive Function
Fertilization, Implantation, and Pregnancy
Events of Fertilization
Early Embryonic Development and Implantation
Later Embryonic and Fetal Development
Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy
Parturition and Lactation
Events of Parturition
Lactation
Chapter Summary
Exercises
The Immune System
Anatomy of the Immune System
Physical Barriers
Leukocytes
Lymphoid Tissues
Pathogens That Activate the Immune Response
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Parasites
Organization of the Body’s Defenses
Nonspecific Defenses
Specific Defenses: Immune Responses
Humoral Immunity
The Role of B Lymphocytes in Antibody Production
Antibody Function in Humoral Immunity
CellMediated Immunity
Roles of T Lymphocytes in CellMediated Immunity
Helper T Cell Activation
Cytotoxic T Cell Activation: The Destruction of VirusInfected Cells and Tumor Cells
Immune Responses in Health and Disease
Generating Immunity: Immunization
Roles of the Immune System in Transfusion and Transplantation
Immune Dysfunctions
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Diabetes Mellitus
Classification of Diabetes Mellitus
Type Diabetes Mellitus
Type Diabetes Mellitus
Acute Effects of Diabetes Mellitus
Acute Hyperglycemia
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma
Hypoglycemic Coma
Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Early Stages
Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Advanced Stages
Adverse Effects of Hyperglycemia
Effects of Diabetes Mellitus on the Microvasculature
Progression of Diabetes Mellitus to Critical States
Effects of Diabetes on the Macrovasculature
Diabetic Cardiomyopathy
Delayed Wound Healing
Wound Healing
Altered Wound Healing in Diabetes
Treatment and Management of Diabetes Mellitus
Current Research on Diabetes Mellitus
New Techniques for Insulin Administration
Development of New Medicines for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Nonpharmaceutical Therapies for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Chapter Summary
Exercises
Answers to Figure Questions, Apply Your
Knowledge, and End-of-Chapter Multiple
Choice and Objective Questions
Credits